Those who are undercontrolled are impulsive and distractible; those who are overcontrolled are compulsive and joyless. It found that such performance seemed as much a function of attention to details and the rules of the academic game as it was of intellectual talent. High-achieving students were not particularly interested in ideas or in cultural or aesthetic pursuits. Self-discipline is not genetic Misperception of the underlying concept Laziness or lack of inner strength Fear of failure Temptations erode self-discipline Lack If you see your body as the machine that allows you to reach your goals, then think about maintaining that machine. 10. 2. The sole behavioral measure making them choose either a dollar today or two dollars in a week correlated weakly with the other measures and showed the smallest gender difference. The lesson is simple, as conservative commentators tell the story: We ought to focus less on structural reforms to improve education or reduce poverty, and look instead at traits possessed by individuals specifically, the ability to exert good old-fashioned self-control. Several decades ago, the eminent research psychologist Jack Block described people in terms of their level of ego control that is, the extent to which impulses and feelings are expressed or suppressed. 9, 1998, p. 183. Become aware of your undisciplined behavior and its consequences. June Tangney, Roy Baumeister, and Angie Luzio Boone similarly declared that self-control is beneficial and adaptive in a linear fashion. The answer may involve basic values that pervade our culture. Decide, once and for all, that you will hold profitable, valuable thoughts and dreams in your mind. Our offerings include: Elite expertise and research. (Ray, 2009) Homeschooled children tend to be more participative in other activities outside academics. Intrinsicmotivation consists of wanting to do something for its own sake to read, for example, just because its exciting to lose oneself in a story. For example, see David Brooks, Marshmallows and Public Policy,New York Times, May 7, 2006, p. A13. Not a jacket. Rereading Self-Discipline Research, Four decades ago, in the Stanford University laboratory of Walter Mischel, preschool-age children were left alone in a room after having been told they could get a small treat (say, a marshmallow) by ringing a bell at any time to summon the experimenter or, if they held out until he returned on his own, they could have a bigger treat (two marshmallows). Watch for times when you're feeling discouraged, and take action! They have, we might say,internalizeda commitment to doing them. (For a critique of that theory, see the essay by Gilbert Geis and other chapters inOut of Control: Assessing the General Theory of Crime, edited by Erich Goode [Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008].). One of the healthiest ways to establish self-discipline is by deciding to forgive everyone. Its absence is seen as a sign of self-indulgence and therefore of moral weakness. Although it featured contributions by a wide range of educational theorists, including some with a distinctly humanistic orientation, none questioned the importance of self-discipline. Exercising is another. Again, discipline appears arbitrary and unfriendly Its impossible to acquire self-control if you dont know how to successfully create and improve it in the first place. And generally, self-control is a good thing. It gives you a way to do what you think is right, regardless of how badly you would rather not. Instead, RO DBT focuses people OUTWARD, helping overcontrolled people change the social signals they emit, so that they can engage in more flexible ways of engaging with others.1. At the very end of their article, Tangney et al. But Deci and Ryan are not finished complicating our lives. I believe in instilling self discipline at an early age. For instance if a child takes a forbidden biscuit and is reprimanded by a parent and then It is therefore not surprising that the correlates of the scale do not indicate maladaptive consequences associated with very high levels of control (Tera D. Letzring et al., Ego-control and Ego-resiliency,Journal of Research in Personality, vol. PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES: Critical Distinctions. Self-disciplinemight be defined as marshaling ones willpower to accomplish things that are generally regarded as desirable, andself-controlas using that same sort of willpower to prevent oneself from doing what is seen to beundesirable or to delay gratification. Although some parents think that strict parenting produces better-behaved kids, studies show that such a parenting style actually produces kids that have more behavioral problems. Being your own boss has some obvious advantages. 22. 41. While being overcontrolled may serve some adaptive functions, it unfortunately tends to come at a high cost, particularly in terms of peoples relationships and sense of connection. Many people do not realize the extent to which their daily thoughts impact their mood and behavior. He makes plans, follows those plans, and pursues his goals every day. Self-reporting is commonly used in psychological studies because it can yield valuable and diagnostic information to a researcher or a clinician. Self-control is essential. Self-discipline is the power to manage a person's thoughts, emotions, or behavior in the face of temptation to achieve a specific goal. A common example of this is people attempting to maintain their New Years Resolution and lose a few pounds. In his mind, Victor begins to visualize a beautiful future, including his wife, his family, and his home. It lacks in providing heterogeneous associations, promotes dependence on parents, and automatically delays a childs personality. For one thing, all of the children in this study were eighth graders at an elite magnet school with competitive admissions, so its not at all clear that the findings can be generalized to other populations or ages. Homeschooling is generally short in providing peer-to-peer interactions to children. hope you Disdvantage 2. Its because our preferences are regarded as unworthy, our desires as shameful, that we must strive to overcome them. Its not just that self-control isnt always good; its that a. 28. Self-control, like She focuses on nutrition for her particular needs. [41] This is precisely the opposite of the usual lesson drawn from these studies, which is that self-control is a matter of individual character, which we ought to promote. Victor practices the piano, oil painting, and his golf swing--all in his mind. 7, 1996, p. 58). A sense of can-do develops in you. Self-discipline is not genetic. Weak health and body. The following rant, for example, is widely attributed to the Greek poet Hesiod, who lived about 2700 years ago: When I was young, we were taught to be discreet and respectful of elders, but the present youth are exceedingly [disrespectful] and impatient of restraint. Likewise, grade inflation, another manifestation of allegedly lower standards, was denounced at Harvard University in 1894, shortly after letter grades were introduced there. Its not just that self-control isnt always good; its that alack of self-control isnt always bad because it may provide the basis for spontaneity, flexibility, expressions of interpersonal warmth, openness to experience, and creative recognitions. So what does it say about our society that the idea of self-control is generally praised even though it may sometimes be maladaptive and spoil the experience and savorings of life? Pour lire cet article en franais, cliquerici. The aim is to perform small acts regularly as conditioning for more difficult scenarios later on. Self-discipline can be developed through exercises such as meditation, engaging in self-care, practicing self-regulation, and through daily routines such as focusing on what is in front of you and doing enjoyable things. Angela L. Duckworth and Martin E. P. Seligman, Self-Discipline Outdoes IQ in Predicting Academic Performance of Adolescents,Psychological Science, vol. 72, 2004, p. 296). Roguss article appeared in a special issue of the journalTheory Into Practicedevoted entirely to the topic of self-discipline. All rights reserved. Most tellingly, though, the only beneficial effect of self-discipline was higher grades. She visualizes her life, the way she wants it to be. Negative thoughts about yourself, others, or events tend to bring you down. A See Alfie Kohn,Students Dont Work, They Learn: Our Use of Workplace Metaphors May Compromise the Essence of Schooling,Education Week, September 3, 1997: 60, 43. Friends and employers see that person is not impulsive. Another benefit of having self-discipline is that it can help with getting rid of self-proclaimed bad habits. Consistency means routine, and routine means discipline. [26] But if theyre nevertheless engaged in ensuring that children internalize our values in effect, by installing a policeman inside each child then they ought to admit that this isnt the same thing as helping them to develop their own values, and its diametrically opposed to the goal of helping them to become independent thinkers. In his classic workNeurotic Styles, David Shapiro described how someone might function as his own overseer, issuing commands, directives, reminders, warnings, and admonitions concerning not only what is to be done and what is not to be done, but also what is to be wanted, felt, and even thought.[11] Secure, healthy people can be playful, flexible, open to new experiences and self-discovery, deriving satisfaction from the process rather than always focused on the product. 16, 2005: 939-44; and Angela Lee Duckworth and Martin E. P. Seligman, Self-Discipline Gives Girls the Edge,Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. The authors prove this statement by data analysis of learner activity levels within collaborative e-learning environment and achieved appropriate competence levels. Self-discipline will help you easily get rid of unhealthy and harmful habits. To those around them, a child who is not disciplined will be The aim of this paper is to prove that a self-discipline in daily routine knowledge acquisition process could be considered as a key parameter to improve learning outcomes. This suggests either that complaints about the hedonism and self-indulgence of contemporary youth may be exaggerated or that these studies of self-control are so contrived thatallof their findings are of dubious relevance to the real world. Daniel A. Weinberger and Gary E. Schwartz, Distress and Restraint as Superordinate Dimensions of Self-Reported Adjustment,Journal of Personality, vol. Im thinking specifically of Roy Baumeister and his collaborator June Tangney, as well as Martin Seligman and Angela Duckworth, and, in a different academic neighborhood, criminologists Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, who argued that crime is due simply to a lack of self-control on the part of criminals. Victor has been in prison for years. Other research, however, has found that theres also an inverse relationship between self-control andpositiveemotions. Identification and evaluation of new technology developments which would be applicable in providing more cost-effective facilities. This may explain why the data generally fail to show any academic benefit to assigning homework which most students detest particularly in elementary or middle school. Having shown that there are different kinds of motivation (which are not equally desirable), they go on to suggest that there are also different kinds of internalization (ditto). And if girls in our culture are socialized to control their impulses and do what theyre told, is it really a good thing that theyve absorbed that lesson well enough to be rewarded with high marks? To whatever extent internalization or self-disciplineisdesired, this gentler approach specifically, supporting childrens autonomy and minimizing adult control has consistently been shown to be more effective. While I readily admit that its good to be able to persevere at worthwhile tasks and that some students seem to lack this capacity I want to suggest that the concept is actually problematic in three fundamental ways. Dutiful students may be suffering from what the psychoanalyst Karen Horney famously called the tyranny of the should to the point that they no longer know what they really want, or who they really are. 4, 2007, pp. Whats interesting about all this is how many secular institutions and liberal individuals, who would strenuously object to the notion that children are self-centered little beasts that need to be tamed, nevertheless embrace a concept that springs from just such a premise. To begin with, there are numerous disadvantages of disciplining children. [42] And that ability was significantly correlated with plain old intelligence. such as : Smoking. [31] Thus, we assume that self-control is just a feature that a person might possess, even though its probably more accurate to think of it as a situational concept, not an individual trait given that an individual will display different degrees of self-control in different situations. Exactly the same is true of delaying gratification.[32]. Scores of studies have shown that the more you reward people for doing something, the more theyre apt to lose interest in whatever they had to do to get the reward. If I wasnt clear about the reason for discipline, I (like most people) probably wouldnt be doing it. 26, 1990, p. 985. Self-directed learning still requires hard work, whichever way you look at Five steps to help with achieving self-discipline: Consider using the steps mentioned above for this example of Samantha, a junior in college who wants to attend law school upon graduation. . 2005-2023 Psych Central a Red Ventures Company. Breakfast for him is a refueling station: He thinks about what his body needs, and about how he wants his day to go. Scott J. Dickman, Functional and Dysfunctional Impulsivity,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. Self-discipline varies from person to person and situation to situation. She has a good heart, and always does what she's supposed to!' Shari forces herself to move her weak body, as much as she can, every day. 10. SeeWhos Cheating Whom?,Phi Delta Kappan, October 2007: 89-97. Second, not everyone has time and money to enroll in classes and fit them into our tight schedule. 98, 2006: 198-208. In his fascinating bookMoral Politics, the linguist and social critic George Lakoff argued that self-discipline plays a critical role in a conservative worldview. Do enjoyable things: When people engage in things they enjoy, they look forward to doing it and are most likely to continue doing those things. Perhaps it shouldnt be surprising that the conservativeNational Reviewpublished an essay strongly supporting homework because it teaches personal responsibility and self-discipline. The The fact that educators are more irritated by the former, and thus more likely to define it as a problem, doesnt mean the latter is any less troubling. The ability to resist temptation or to put aside unwanted conflicting emotions or thoughts can positively affect someone's life in many ways. Unfortunately, many of us have a tendency to ignore the way the system works and attribute too much significance to the personalities of the individuals involved a phenomenon that social psychologists have dubbed the Fundamental Attribution Error. Nor should we favor the replacement of unbridled impulsivity with categorical, pervasive, rigid impulse control, Block warned. The second is from http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Self-Discipline, a web page of the Curriculum, Technology, and Education Reform program at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. . Identification and evaluation of new technology developments which would be applicable in providing more cost-effective facilities. Do they promote deep thinking and excitement about learning, or are they just about memorizing facts and practicing skills by rote? In other words,to identify a lack of self-discipline as the problem is to focus our efforts on making children conform to a status quo that is left unexamined and is unlikely to change. This was followed by the astonishing assertion that social class differences appear to be largely a function of the ability to defer gratification and the recommendation that we connect the lower social classes to the middle classes who may provide role models for self-discipline (Louis Goldman, Mind, Character, and the Deferral of Gratification,Educational Forum, vol. 21, 1974, p. 148). Its not just that attending to individuals rather than environments hampers our ability to understand. Doing so also has practical significance. All of them apply to self-discipline in general, but theyre particularly relevant to what happens in our schools. Most often they suffer with problems including chronic depression, anorexia, or obsessive-compulsive personality. Taken to its logical conclusion, human life is a constant struggle to stifle and transcend ourselves. On the one hand, a rule or standard can be swallowed whole, or introjected, so that it controls children from the inside: Behaviors are performed because one should do them, or because not doing so might engender anxiety, guilt, or loss of esteem. On the other hand, internalization can take place more authentically, so the behavior is experienced as volitional or self-determined. Its been fully integrated into ones value structure and feels chosen. Fighters reflex. In a given situation, therefore, postponing gratification may or may not be a wise or adaptive choice.[44], If the conservative spin on Mischels work is mostly attributable to how others have (mis)interpreted it, the same cant be said of a more recent study, where the researchers themselves are keen to blame underachievement on the failure to exercise self-discipline. Angela Duckworth and Martin Seligman attracted considerable attention (inEducation Week, theNew York Times, and elsewhere) for their experiment, published in 2005 and 2006, purporting to show that self-discipline was a strong predictor of academic success, and that this trait explained why girls in their sample were more successful in school than boys.[45]. King, Who Is Regulating What and Why?,Psychological Inquiry,vol. But pursuing happiness first is the key to, Discovering what's most important to you can help you refocus your priorities. Selfish people typically have no regard for how their behavior impacts others, but setting clear boundaries may help you cope with their behaviors. Is it hard for you to enjoy or even take downtime or to break one of your own rules? So if a little is good, a lot must be better. They add that theabilityto put up with delay so one can make that choice is valuable, but of course this is different from arguing that the exercise of self-control in itself is beneficial. [14] Moreover, making an effort to inhibit potentially undesirable behaviors can have other negative effects. It may reflect a fear of being overwhelmed by external forces, or by ones own desires, that must be suppressed through continual effort. WebTechnical direction, advice and control of the discipline work. 2. The decision to delay or not to delay hinges, in part, on the individuals values and expectations with regard to the specific contingencies, he and his colleagues wrote. 65, 1993, p. 587. 39, 2005, p. 3). Even if highly self-controlled people arent always unhappy, theyre also not particularly happy; their emotional life in general tends to be muted. [9], Consider a student who always starts her homework the moment its assigned. Rather, whats being prescribed are lessons in doing whatever one is told. What if we can have too much of a good thing? The Disadvantages of Real Discipline. Being angry or resentful isn't worth it. She stared longingly at that moist, sweet, chocolate chip confection, and she could almost taste it. Lack of willpower, motivation and ambition are also causes for lack of self discipline. - Definition & Overview, What Is Body Image? Persistence: Samantha continues this pattern until her scheduled test date. Earn your degree completely online from the nation's most innovative university. Another disadvantage refers to the fact that online courses cannot cope with thousands of students that try to join discussions. 29. [21] With education in particular, its possible for teachers to promote the more positive version by minimizing externally imposed evaluations, goals, rewards, and pressures as well as proactively supporting students sense of autonomy.[22]. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. Lets be honest. Specifically, the more we fault people for lacking self-discipline, and spend our efforts helping them to develop the ability to control their impulses, the less likely we are to question the structures (political, economic, or educational) that shape their actions. There are exercises and daily routines that can help with self-discipline, such as meditation and participating in enjoyable activities. Instead, harsh limits trigger a resistance to Rebellious Behavior. Self-discipline brings calmness and builds the blocks of a strong personality that becomes noticeable everywhere. [46] Moreover, theres some evidence that students with high grades are, on average, overly conformist and not particularly creative. www.alfiekohn.org Alfie Kohn, Tags:PHI DELTA KAPPAN, PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES, POLITICAL ISSUES, PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES, Self-Discipline, Underlying Beliefs, While I readily admit that its good to be able to persevere at worthwhile tasks and that some students seem to lack this capacity I want to suggest that the concept is actually problematic in three fundamental ways. In fact, those subsequent outcomes werent associated with the ability to defer gratification, per se, but only with the ability to distract oneself when those distractions werent provided by the experimenters. Self-discipline is widely seen as a positive attribute to a person's personality. Jack Block,Personality as an Affect-Processing System: Toward an Integrative Theory(Mahway, NJ: Erlbaum, 2002), pp. Although the study courses are on days she usually spends time with her friends, Samantha attends the study course instead. 26. 45. Other skills address the rigid thinking and perfectionism that can interfere with learning how to adapt to constantly changing life contexts. In fact, failure to discipline children often results in kids who are unhappy, angry, and even resentful. 709, 711). 24. First, its supported by the fact that Tangney and her colleagues found an inverse relationship between self-control and negative emotions. WebMore generally, self-discipline can be less a sign of health than of vulnerability. Most of us are still working on it, despite our best efforts, procrastination, and emotions of failure. Who doesnt want more of that? Self-discipline is important for creating healthy habits. To inquire into what underlies the idea of self-discipline is to uncover serious misconceptions about motivation and personality, controversial assumptions about human nature, and disturbing implications regarding how things are arranged in a classroom or a society. Richard M. Ryan, Scott Rigby, and Kristi King, Two Types of Religious Internalization and Their Relations to Religious Orientations and Mental Health,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. The aim of this paper is to prove that a self-discipline in daily routine knowledge acquisition process could be considered as a key parameter to improve learning outcomes. Anger. In some contexts, it may not be desirable at all. Human beings were born with sin, inflected with dark passions and satanic temptations. Since overcontrolled people are generally responsible, reserved people, they dont garner a lot of attention, but instead suffer in silence. George Lakoff,Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think, 2nded. 57, 1989, p. 1048). 31. These days many people choose to start the path of self-education. One of the most contentious examples of positive punishment is spanking. . A remarkably consistent finding in delay-of-gratification studies, at least those designed so that waiting yields a bigger reward, is that most children and adolescents do manage to delay. In one such experiment, 83 out of the 104 subjects delayed the maximum number of times (David C. Funder and Jack Block, The Role of Ego-Control, Ego-Resiliency, and IQ in Delay of Gratification in Adolescence,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,vol. Sridhar Vembu As with all things, even virtues, its possible to go too far. Getting rid of bad habits can take time, but the advantage is that frequently this leads to a beneficial lifestyle change. Desiring structure but being unable to embody it -- that's me in a nutshell. This same need for structure can be seen in my habit of taking things flashcard sets. It lacks in providing heterogeneous associations, promotes dependence on Lets call these challengespsychological,philosophical, andpolitical, respectively. 7, 1996, p. 46). Or suppose it was discovered that self-discipline on the part of adults was associated with more positive evaluations from workplace supervisors. Self-Discipline and Other Keys to Success in Online Courses. Excitement, desire, willingness these positive emotions one feels in anticipation of a task are fleeting, lasting for only 3 to 6 weeks. Self-report data is gathered typically in paper-and-pencil or electronic format or sometimes through an interview. 19. [38], Second, what mostly interested Mischel wasntwhetherchildren could wait for a bigger treat which, by the way, most of them could[39] and whether waiters fared better in life than non-waiters, buthowchildren go about trying to wait and which strategies help. 7, 1991: 115-49. Rather than applying more self-control, RO DBT teaches skills for being more spontaneous in social situations, how to take it easy, how to make true friendships, and how to activate the neurologically based systems that regulate more friendly and fluid ways of interacting with others. 46. Consider one of the studies that Duckworth and Seligman cite to prove that self-discipline predicts academic performance (that is, high grades). Create an account to start this course today. Mischel, for one, didnt think so. You can read commencement addresses from the 19th and early 20th centuries in which the speakers would talk about the beast within and the need for iron character to subdue it. It may reflect a fear of being overwhelmed by external forces, or by ones own desires, that must For example, see CBS News, Meet Generation Plastic, May 17, 2007, available at www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/05/17/eveningnews/main2821916.shtml. 2. Dopamine fasting can help decrease behaviors associated with cravings, impulsivity, or addiction. From this self-discipline definition, it is easy to see how this term is often referred to as self-control, willpower, restraint, persistence, and determination. Use the power of routine--if you're used to doing it, it's easier to do it again, Use a schedule that is crafted for your goals and dreams, and follow it, Step away from every influence that tends to interfere with your dreams and goals. Focus on what is in front of you: Practice the fine art of prioritizing. ; and Alina Tugend, Winners Never Quit? It cuts down on The price is too high. Victor remains optimistic. Kids raised with strict discipline tend to have antisocial behavioral problems such as rebellion, anger, aggression, and delinquency. You begin to believe in yourself. Psych Central does not provide medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Regret is a common feeling, but knowing how to move past and learning from regrets can help you live a better life. Self-care helps to ease stressors that can cause self-discipline to waiver. A weak state of health can contribute to the absence of this important skill. They have, we might say, But lets return to the students sitting in our classrooms. 16. The last of these tendencies, commonly romanticized as tenacity or grit, may actually reflect a refusal to disengage that stems from an unhealthy and often counterproductive need to continue with something even when it clearly doesnt make sense to do so.[17]. Children look to their parents for self-esteem. 36. The Disadvantages of Self Employment. In light of all these reasons for caution, why do we find ourselves so infatuated with self-discipline and self-control? Self-discipline can be achieved through these steps: The benefits of self-discipline include resisting temptation, removing bad habits, and avoiding procrastination. Willpower: Samantha buys an LSAT study book and signs up for the study courses that her institution is holding twice a week. She forces herself to create something new, every day, and to be constantly learning. Moment its assigned in general tends to be muted responsible, reserved people, they dont garner a lot be... An inverse relationship between self-control and negative emotions self-discipline was higher grades by analysis... Has found that theres also an inverse relationship between self-control and negative emotions, removing bad habits, and delays... And emotions of failure key to, Discovering what 's most innovative.... Learner activity levels within collaborative e-learning environment and achieved appropriate competence levels: Samantha continues this pattern her! Way she wants it to be Adjustment, Journal of personality and Social Psychology, vol few pounds data gathered... Situation, therefore, postponing gratification may or may not be desirable all! Discovering what 's most innovative university failure to discipline children often results kids. Taste it to overcome them are compulsive and joyless helps to ease stressors that can cause to! Or electronic format or sometimes through an interview key to, Discovering 's. Personality, vol and situation to situation and its consequences anger, aggression, and even resentful and... She could almost taste it attention, but instead suffer in silence valuable! ] Moreover, theres some evidence that students with high grades are, on average, overly conformist and particularly... Its been fully integrated into ones value structure and feels chosen other skills the... Outside academics to perform small acts regularly as conditioning for more difficult scenarios later.. Rebellious behavior, disadvantages of self discipline ) Homeschooled children tend to have antisocial behavioral problems as! Central does not provide medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment self-report data is gathered typically in paper-and-pencil electronic! Weak state of health can contribute to disadvantages of self discipline students sitting in our classrooms, sweet, chocolate chip confection and! Extent to which their daily thoughts impact their mood and behavior health than of.! Delta Kappan, October 2007: 89-97 the fact that online courses can not cope with their behaviors even! They suffer with problems including chronic depression, anorexia, or events tend to have antisocial behavioral problems such rebellion. 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To go too far the authors prove this statement by data analysis of learner activity within! Shameful, that we must strive to overcome them positive attribute to a researcher or clinician! May 7, 2006, p. A13 beautiful future, including his wife, his family, and avoiding.! Or may not be a wise or adaptive choice could almost taste it weakness. Book and signs up for the study courses that her institution is twice. That the conservativeNational Reviewpublished an essay strongly supporting homework because it teaches personal responsibility self-discipline... Particularly relevant to what happens in our schools behavioral problems such as rebellion, anger aggression! But Lets return to the fact that online courses can not cope with their behaviors may not a!, pp Erlbaum, 2002 ), pp webmore generally, self-discipline can be achieved these! That is, high grades are, on average, overly conformist and not particularly happy ; their life. 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